Liabilities / Assets
60th percentile
Tied with the lowest-debt nonprofits in its peer group.
EIN 27-4901408 • 501(c)3 • Lansing, MI
Profile
Provide informational programs and non-partisan research and analysis concerning education reform. Conduct and examine others' research into education reform and analyze those plans' application in Michigan.
Precomputed percentiles relative to similar nonprofits. These scores are descriptive rather than judgmental.
Liabilities / Assets
60th percentile
Tied with the lowest-debt nonprofits in its peer group.
Liabilities / Revenue
62nd percentile
Tied with the lowest-debt nonprofits in its peer group.
Net Margin
27th percentile
Higher net margin than 27% of similar nonprofits.
Top Officer Pay
83rd percentile
Higher top officer pay than 83% of similar nonprofits.
Top officer pay equals 8.1% of source-year revenue.
Asset Growth
11th percentile
Faster asset growth than 11% of similar nonprofits.
Revenue Growth
16th percentile
Faster revenue growth than 16% of similar nonprofits.
Assets
Down$36,962
Down $10,475 (-22%) from 2022
Liabilities
Up$30,000
Up $30,000 from 2022
Net Assets
Down$6,962
Down $40,475 (-85%) from 2022
Revenue
Down$107,000
Down $243,500 (-69%) from 2022
Expenses
Up$487,847
Up $124,977 (+34%) from 2022
Net Income
Down-$380,847
Down $368,477 (-2979%) from 2022
Most recent year
2024 • Form 990EZDetailed filing. Detailed filing data is available for this year.
Provide informational programs and non-partisan research and analysis concerning education reform. Conduct and examine others' research into education reform and analyze those plans' application in Michigan.
| Description | Grants | Expenses |
|---|---|---|
| Conduct and examine others' research into education reform and analyze those plans' application in Michigan. Engage in public interest litigation. | $0 | $435,306 |
| Name | Title | Full / Part Time | Base | Other | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mary Doster | Treasurer | - | $3,315 | - | $3,315 |
| Jase Bolger | Secretary/Director | - | $0 | - | - |
| James Barrett | President/Director | - | $0 | - | - |
| Nate Bailey | Vice President/Director | - | $0 | - | - |
“Great Lakes Education Fund (affiliate) $50,000 Parent Advocates Choice in Education Foundation $70,000”
“Description;Amount^Office Expenses;4617|Travel;2232|Paid to Affilates for shared employee;163128^Total;169977^”
“Operating loan”
This appendix keeps the raw XML leaves available for debugging and edge-case review. The human report above is the primary experience.
| Path | # | Value |
|---|---|---|
| IRS990EZ/ActivitiesNotPreviouslyRptInd | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/BenefitsPaidToOrForMembersAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/BooksInCareOfDetail/PersonNm | 0 | Mary Doster |
| IRS990EZ/BooksInCareOfDetail/PhoneNum | 0 | 5175254994 |
| IRS990EZ/BooksInCareOfDetail/USAddress/AddressLine1Txt | 0 | 2870 Dobie Rd |
| IRS990EZ/BooksInCareOfDetail/USAddress/CityNm | 0 | Mason |
| IRS990EZ/BooksInCareOfDetail/USAddress/StateAbbreviationCd | 0 | MI |
| IRS990EZ/BooksInCareOfDetail/USAddress/ZIPCd | 0 | 48854 |
| IRS990EZ/CashSavingsAndInvestmentsGrp/BOYAmt | 0 | 387809 |
| IRS990EZ/CashSavingsAndInvestmentsGrp/EOYAmt | 0 | 36962 |
| IRS990EZ/ChgMadeToOrgnzngDocNotRptInd | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/ContributionsGiftsGrantsEtcAmt | 0 | 107000 |
| IRS990EZ/CostOfGoodsSoldAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/CostOrOtherBasisExpenseSaleAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/DirectIndirectPltclExpendAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/DonorAdvisedFndsInd | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/EngagedInExcessBenefitTransInd | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/ExcessOrDeficitForYearAmt | 0 | -380847 |
| IRS990EZ/FeesAndOtherPymtToIndCntrctAmt | 0 | 181253 |
| IRS990EZ/FiledScheduleAInd | 0 | 1 |
| IRS990EZ/ForeignFinancialAccountInd | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/ForeignOfficeInd | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/Form1120PolFiledInd | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/Form990TotalAssetsGrp/BOYAmt | 0 | 387809 |
| IRS990EZ/Form990TotalAssetsGrp/EOYAmt | 0 | 36962 |
| IRS990EZ/FundraisingGrossIncomeAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/GainOrLossFromSaleOfAssetsAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/GamingGrossIncomeAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/GrantsAndSimilarAmountsPaidAmt | 0 | 120000 |
| IRS990EZ/GrossProfitLossSlsOfInvntryAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/GrossReceiptsAmt | 0 | 107000 |
| IRS990EZ/GrossSalesOfInventoryAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/InfoInScheduleOPartIIInd | 0 | X |
| IRS990EZ/InfoInScheduleOPartIInd | 0 | X |
| IRS990EZ/InvestmentIncomeAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/LandAndBuildingsGrp/BOYAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/LandAndBuildingsGrp/EOYAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/LobbyingActivitiesInd | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/MadeLoansToFromOfficersInd | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/MembershipDuesAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/MethodOfAccountingCashInd | 0 | X |
| IRS990EZ/NetAssetsOrFundBalancesBOYAmt | 0 | 387809 |
| IRS990EZ/NetAssetsOrFundBalancesEOYAmt | 0 | 6962 |
| IRS990EZ/NetAssetsOrFundBalancesGrp/BOYAmt | 0 | 387809 |
| IRS990EZ/NetAssetsOrFundBalancesGrp/EOYAmt | 0 | 6962 |
| IRS990EZ/OccupancyRentUtltsAndMaintAmt | 0 | 15972 |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/AverageHrsPerWkDevotedToPosRt | 0 | 1 |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/AverageHrsPerWkDevotedToPosRt | 1 | 1 |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/AverageHrsPerWkDevotedToPosRt | 2 | 1 |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/AverageHrsPerWkDevotedToPosRt | 3 | 1 |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/CompensationAmt | 0 | 3315 |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/CompensationAmt | 1 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/CompensationAmt | 2 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/CompensationAmt | 3 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/EmployeeBenefitProgramAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/EmployeeBenefitProgramAmt | 1 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/EmployeeBenefitProgramAmt | 2 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/EmployeeBenefitProgramAmt | 3 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/ExpenseAccountOtherAllwncAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/ExpenseAccountOtherAllwncAmt | 1 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/ExpenseAccountOtherAllwncAmt | 2 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/ExpenseAccountOtherAllwncAmt | 3 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/PersonNm | 0 | Mary Doster |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/PersonNm | 1 | Jase Bolger |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/PersonNm | 2 | James Barrett |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/PersonNm | 3 | Nate Bailey |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/TitleTxt | 0 | Treasurer |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/TitleTxt | 1 | Secretary/Director |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/TitleTxt | 2 | President/Director |
| IRS990EZ/OfficerDirectorTrusteeEmplGrp/TitleTxt | 3 | Vice President/Director |
| IRS990EZ/OperateHospitalInd | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/Organization501c3Ind | 0 | X |
| IRS990EZ/OrganizationDissolvedEtcInd | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/OrganizationHadUBIInd | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/OtherAssetsTotalDetail/BOYAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/OtherAssetsTotalDetail/EOYAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/OtherChangesInNetAssetsAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/OtherExpensesTotalAmt | 0 | 169977 |
| IRS990EZ/OtherRevenueTotalAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/PartVIHghstPdCntrctProfSrvcTxt | 0 | NONE |
| IRS990EZ/PartVIOfCompOfHghstPdEmplTxt | 0 | NONE |
| IRS990EZ/PoliticalCampaignActyInd | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/PrimaryExemptPurposeTxt | 0 | Provide informational programs and non-partisan research and analysis concerning education reform. Conduct and examine others' research into education reform and analyze those plans' application in Michigan. |
| IRS990EZ/PrintingPublicationsPostageAmt | 0 | 645 |
| IRS990EZ/ProgramServiceRevenueAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/ProgramSrvcAccomplishmentGrp/DescriptionProgramSrvcAccomTxt | 0 | Conduct and examine others' research into education reform and analyze those plans' application in Michigan. Engage in public interest litigation. |
| IRS990EZ/ProgramSrvcAccomplishmentGrp/GrantsAndAllocationsAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/ProgramSrvcAccomplishmentGrp/ProgramServiceExpensesAmt | 0 | 435306 |
| IRS990EZ/ProhibitedTaxShelterTransInd | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/RelatedOrganizationCtrlEntInd | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/SalariesOtherCompEmplBnftAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/SaleOfAssetsGrossAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/SchoolOperatingInd | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/SpecialEventsDirectExpensesAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/SpecialEventsNetIncomeLossAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/SubjectToProxyTaxInd | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/SumOfTotalLiabilitiesGrp/BOYAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/SumOfTotalLiabilitiesGrp/EOYAmt | 0 | 30000 |
| IRS990EZ/TanningServicesProvidedInd | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/TaxImposedOnOrganizationMgrAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/TaxImposedUnderIRC4911Amt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/TaxImposedUnderIRC4912Amt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/TaxImposedUnderIRC4955Amt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/TaxReimbursedByOrganizationAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/TotalExpensesAmt | 0 | 487847 |
| IRS990EZ/TotalProgramServiceExpensesAmt | 0 | 435306 |
| IRS990EZ/TotalRevenueAmt | 0 | 107000 |
| IRS990EZ/TransactionWithControlEntInd | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/TrnsfrExmptNonChrtblRltdOrgInd | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990EZ/TypeOfOrganizationCorpInd | 0 | X |
| IRS990ScheduleA/AmountsRcvdDsqlfyPersonGrp/CurrentTaxYearMinus4YearsAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/AmountsRcvdDsqlfyPersonGrp/TotalAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/GiftsGrantsContrisRcvd509Grp/CurrentTaxYearAmt | 0 | 107000 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/GiftsGrantsContrisRcvd509Grp/CurrentTaxYearMinus1YearAmt | 0 | 550100 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/GiftsGrantsContrisRcvd509Grp/CurrentTaxYearMinus2YearsAmt | 0 | 350500 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/GiftsGrantsContrisRcvd509Grp/CurrentTaxYearMinus3YearsAmt | 0 | 200000 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/GiftsGrantsContrisRcvd509Grp/CurrentTaxYearMinus4YearsAmt | 0 | 177500 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/GiftsGrantsContrisRcvd509Grp/TotalAmt | 0 | 1385100 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/GovtFurnSrvcFcltsVl509Grp/CurrentTaxYearMinus4YearsAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/GovtFurnSrvcFcltsVl509Grp/TotalAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/GrossInvestmentIncome509Grp/CurrentTaxYearMinus4YearsAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/GrossInvestmentIncome509Grp/TotalAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/GrossReceiptsAdmissionsGrp/CurrentTaxYearMinus4YearsAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/GrossReceiptsAdmissionsGrp/TotalAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/GrossReceiptsNonUnrltBusGrp/CurrentTaxYearMinus4YearsAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/GrossReceiptsNonUnrltBusGrp/TotalAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/InvestmentIncomeAndUBTIGrp/CurrentTaxYearAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/InvestmentIncomeAndUBTIGrp/CurrentTaxYearMinus1YearAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/InvestmentIncomeAndUBTIGrp/CurrentTaxYearMinus2YearsAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/InvestmentIncomeAndUBTIGrp/CurrentTaxYearMinus3YearsAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/InvestmentIncomeAndUBTIGrp/CurrentTaxYearMinus4YearsAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/InvestmentIncomeAndUBTIGrp/TotalAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/InvestmentIncomeCYPct | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/InvestmentIncomePYPct | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/NetIncomeFromOtherUBIGrp/CurrentTaxYearMinus4YearsAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/NetIncomeFromOtherUBIGrp/TotalAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/OtherIncome509Grp/CurrentTaxYearMinus4YearsAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/OtherIncome509Grp/TotalAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/Post1975UBTIGrp/CurrentTaxYearMinus4YearsAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/Post1975UBTIGrp/TotalAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/PubliclySupportedOrg509a2Ind | 0 | X |
| IRS990ScheduleA/PublicSupportCY509Pct | 0 | 1 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/PublicSupportPY509Pct | 0 | 1 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/PublicSupportTotal509Amt | 0 | 1385100 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/SubstAndDsqlfyPrsnsTotGrp/CurrentTaxYearAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/SubstAndDsqlfyPrsnsTotGrp/CurrentTaxYearMinus1YearAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/SubstAndDsqlfyPrsnsTotGrp/CurrentTaxYearMinus2YearsAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/SubstAndDsqlfyPrsnsTotGrp/CurrentTaxYearMinus3YearsAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/SubstAndDsqlfyPrsnsTotGrp/CurrentTaxYearMinus4YearsAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/SubstAndDsqlfyPrsnsTotGrp/TotalAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/SubstantialContributorsAmtGrp/CurrentTaxYearMinus4YearsAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/SubstantialContributorsAmtGrp/TotalAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/TaxRevLeviedOrgnztnlBnft509Grp/CurrentTaxYearMinus4YearsAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/TaxRevLeviedOrgnztnlBnft509Grp/TotalAmt | 0 | 0 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/ThirtyThrPctSuprtTestsCY509Ind | 0 | X |
| IRS990ScheduleA/Total509Grp/CurrentTaxYearAmt | 0 | 107000 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/Total509Grp/CurrentTaxYearMinus1YearAmt | 0 | 550100 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/Total509Grp/CurrentTaxYearMinus2YearsAmt | 0 | 350500 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/Total509Grp/CurrentTaxYearMinus3YearsAmt | 0 | 200000 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/Total509Grp/CurrentTaxYearMinus4YearsAmt | 0 | 177500 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/Total509Grp/TotalAmt | 0 | 1385100 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/TotalSupportCalendarYearGrp/CurrentTaxYearAmt | 0 | 107000 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/TotalSupportCalendarYearGrp/CurrentTaxYearMinus1YearAmt | 0 | 550100 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/TotalSupportCalendarYearGrp/CurrentTaxYearMinus2YearsAmt | 0 | 350500 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/TotalSupportCalendarYearGrp/CurrentTaxYearMinus3YearsAmt | 0 | 200000 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/TotalSupportCalendarYearGrp/CurrentTaxYearMinus4YearsAmt | 0 | 177500 |
| IRS990ScheduleA/TotalSupportCalendarYearGrp/TotalAmt | 0 | 1385100 |
| IRS990ScheduleB/ContributorInformationGrp/ContributorBusinessName/BusinessNameLine1 | 0 | RESTRICTED |
| IRS990ScheduleB/ContributorInformationGrp/ContributorNum | 0 | RESTRICTED |
| IRS990ScheduleB/ContributorInformationGrp/ContributorUSAddress/AddressLine1 | 0 | RESTRICTED |
| IRS990ScheduleB/ContributorInformationGrp/ContributorUSAddress/AddressLine2 | 0 | RESTRICTED |
| IRS990ScheduleB/ContributorInformationGrp/ContributorUSAddress/City | 0 | RESTRICTED |
| IRS990ScheduleB/ContributorInformationGrp/ContributorUSAddress/State | 0 | RESTRICTED |
| IRS990ScheduleB/ContributorInformationGrp/ContributorUSAddress/ZIPCode | 0 | RESTRICTED |
| IRS990ScheduleB/ContributorInformationGrp/TotalContributionsAmt | 0 | RESTRICTED |
| IRS990ScheduleO/SupplementalInformationDetail/ExplanationTxt | 0 | Great Lakes Education Fund (affiliate) $50,000 Parent Advocates Choice in Education Foundation $70,000 |
| IRS990ScheduleO/SupplementalInformationDetail/ExplanationTxt | 1 | Description;Amount^Office Expenses;4617|Travel;2232|Paid to Affilates for shared employee;163128^Total;169977^ |
| IRS990ScheduleO/SupplementalInformationDetail/ExplanationTxt | 2 | Operating loan |
| IRS990ScheduleO/SupplementalInformationDetail/FormAndLineReferenceDesc | 0 | Form 990-EZ, Part I, Line 10 |
| IRS990ScheduleO/SupplementalInformationDetail/FormAndLineReferenceDesc | 1 | Form 990-EZ, Part I, Line 16 |
| IRS990ScheduleO/SupplementalInformationDetail/FormAndLineReferenceDesc | 2 | Form 990-EZ, Part II, Line 26 |
| ReturnHeader/BuildTS | 0 | 2025-03-06 01:10:19Z |
| ReturnHeader/BusinessOfficerGrp/PersonNm | 0 | Mary Doster |
| ReturnHeader/BusinessOfficerGrp/PersonTitleTxt | 0 | Treasurer |
| ReturnHeader/BusinessOfficerGrp/PhoneNum | 0 | 5175254994 |
| ReturnHeader/BusinessOfficerGrp/SignatureDt | 0 | 2025-05-09 |
| ReturnHeader/Filer/BusinessName/BusinessNameLine1Txt | 0 | GREAT LAKES EDUCATION FOUNDATION |
| ReturnHeader/Filer/BusinessNameControlTxt | 0 | GREA |
| ReturnHeader/Filer/EIN | 0 | 274901408 |
| ReturnHeader/Filer/PhoneNum | 0 | 5175254994 |
| ReturnHeader/Filer/USAddress/AddressLine1Txt | 0 | PO Box 14148 |
| ReturnHeader/Filer/USAddress/CityNm | 0 | Lansing |
| ReturnHeader/Filer/USAddress/StateAbbreviationCd | 0 | MI |
| ReturnHeader/Filer/USAddress/ZIPCd | 0 | 48901 |
| ReturnHeader/IRSResponsiblePrtyInfoCurrInd | 0 | 1 |
| ReturnHeader/ReturnTs | 0 | 2025-04-29T14:33:55-07:00 |
| ReturnHeader/ReturnTypeCd | 0 | 990EZ |
| ReturnHeader/TaxPeriodBeginDt | 0 | 2024-01-01 |
| ReturnHeader/TaxPeriodEndDt | 0 | 2024-12-31 |
| ReturnHeader/TaxYr | 0 | 2024 |
No mirrored PDF or thumbnail assets are attached yet.
Similar nonprofits based on the same Siviq industry and scale cohort. 501(c)3 • <$500k nonprofits
Alexandria, VA
View Organization501(c)3
Revenue vs current organization
About the sameAssets vs current organization
182% higherSacramento, CA
View Organization501(c)3 • NTEE P80
Revenue vs current organization
About the sameAssets vs current organization
55% higherBrockton, MA
View Organization501(c)3
Revenue vs current organization
About the sameAssets vs current organization
123% higherArlington, TX
View Organization501(c)3
Revenue vs current organization
About the sameAssets vs current organization
100% lower